Explore the World Through Geography, Natural Resources & Daily History
Clear, reliable and engaging guides that help you understand our planet — from UK geography education to global natural resources and On This Day history events.
Explore, discover, and learn about the wonders of our world! At Earth Site, we’re passionate about bringing geography, history, and science to life for curious minds of all ages. Whether you’re delving into historical events, uncovering the mysteries of the natural world, or seeking interactive resources, you’re in the right place.
Here, you can uncover the stories behind historical events, explore the natural wonders of our planet, and gain valuable insights into how the Earth’s systems shape our daily lives. From the towering peaks of mountain ranges to the far-reaching impacts of human innovation, we aim to make every topic both engaging and informative.
Start your journey of discovery with us today, and let’s make learning an adventure!
What We Cover
Earth Site brings together engaging and accessible educational content designed to help you understand the world, its history, and its natural systems.
🌍 Geography Education (UK & Worldwide)
We publish clear, easy-to-understand geography resources for students, teachers and curious learners. Our guides support geography education in the UK and cover physical geography, climate, ecosystems, population, and global development.
⛏️ Natural Resources & Environmental Geography
Explore detailed country profiles covering natural resources, mining, energy, geology and global environmental challenges. We show how nations manage minerals, water, land and ecosystems, and why these resources matter.
📅 On This Day in History
Every day has a story. Our On This Day history series features major events, anniversaries, traditions, and cultural milestones from around the world — with timelines, context, and fun facts.
TIMELINE
Local Galactic Group
The Local galactic group is the term we use for a group of over thirty galaxies in our local vicinity. What is our Local Galactic Group? Which Galaxies makeup our Local Galactic Group? Milky Way Group Andromeda The Triangulum spiral Galaxy (M33) Galaxies in our Local Group – Quick Reference What is our Local Galactic Group? Galaxies in a super cluster are not spread evenly but seem to be clumped together due to gravity into groups. The Local group is the term we use for a group of over thirty galaxies in our local vicinity (although various sources suggest more member galaxies these are not confirmed) and our group was first recognised by American astronomer and physicist Edwin Hubble. Which Galaxies makeup our Local Galactic Group? The two main Galaxies within our group are the Milky Way galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy (M31), each with their own surrounding group of smaller galaxies drawn in by the massive gravitational pull of these giants. Evidence suggests that these two very large galaxies were formed from absorption and culminations of smaller galaxies1. Observations of our two galaxies also suggest that they are being drawn closer together at a speed of 300km (or 180mi) a second and one day, in about several billion years from now, they too will merge as one super galaxy. This process will not happen quickly and it will take over about 2 billion years2 for the unity to be complete. Another smaller but still very large galaxy (third largest of the group but about...
Liquid Nitrogen
Liquid Nitrogen is nitrogen gas (its normal state on earth) that has been cooled sufficiently enough for it to change into its liquid state. What is liquid Nitrogen? Where Does Liquid Nitrogen Come From? Use of Liquid Nitrogen Use of Liquid Nitrogen in Science Medical Applications Use in Special effects Liquid Nitrogen use in Cuisine Safety Concerns with Liquid Nitrogen    What is liquid Nitrogen?  Liquid Nitrogen is nitrogen gas (its normal state on earth) that has been cooled sufficiently enough for it to change into its liquid state. Nitrogen becomes a liquid (at normal atmospheric pressure) between -210o C to -196o C (63 K to 77.2 K or -346°F to -320.44°F). Where Does Liquid Nitrogen Come From? Nitrogen is obtained industrially from fractional distillation, a process that involves cooling air down to -200° C so it becomes a liquid. This is then allowed to heat in a chamber by several degrees until the air becomes -190 C and the nitrogen becomes a gas once more. At this point the collected nitrogen can then be cooled to -195 ˚C or more when it becomes liquid Nitrogen (nitrogen’s boiling point – when it becomes a gas – is -195.8 ˚C).  Air is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of other substances. This means that air is a very good source of nitrogen and the most efficient way of extracting it is through fractional distillation. In many cases fractional distillation required heating the original substance to extract its required parts but fractional distillation of air requires cooling to low temperatures. As the nitrogen is already...
Lithium – alkali metal
Lithium is a soft silver-white metal with a range of applications including medication,batteries and fireworks. Basic Information Discovery of Lithium Sources of Lithium Uses of Lithium Lithium Tablets Lithium Batteries Lithium In Fireworks Lithium’s Cell Structure Absorption Lines of Lithium Emission Lines of Lithium Lithium (from the Greek Lithos meaning Stone) Classification: Alkali metal Atomic Mass: [6.941 (2)] g/mol Density: 0.534g/cm3 Colour: metallic silver or greyish white Boiling Point: 1615K (1342°C) Melting Point: 453.69K (180.54°C) Critical Temperature:3223K (2950°C) Discovery of Lithium Lithium (3Li) was first discovered in the mineral petalite (LiAlSi4O10) by Johann Arfvedson in Sweden 1817. Sources It is harvested from compounds found in most igneous rocks, clay, brine sources and through electrolysis of compounds like lithium chloride. 3Li is a highly reactive and flammable metal like all the alkali metals and is only found in nature as part of a compound. A pure sample is a metallic silver metal however this very quickly changes into a dull whitish grey or black colour as it reacts with moisture or oxygen in the air. 3Li is the only alkali metal that reacts with nitrogen. To prevent reactions with other elements it is usually stored in mineral oil which acts as a barrier or protective seal. Uses In medicine 3Li is used to regulate the sodium levels in the muscles and nerves reducing the effects of mania in those that suffer from manic depression or manic episodes. 3Li helps reduce some of the symptoms associated with the illness such as hyperactivity, insomnia, aggression...
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. Basic Information Discovery of Hydrogen Sources of Hydrogen Uses of Hydrogen The Hydrogen Bomb Airships Hydrogen Fuel Cells Hydrogen’s Cell Structure Absorption Lines of Hydrogen Emission Lines of Hydrogen Hydrogen (from the Greek hudor (meaning water) and gennan (meaning generate) Classification: Non-metallic Atomic Mass: 1.00794 g/mol Density: 0.08988g/cm3 Colour: None Boiling Point: 20.268K (-252.87°C Melting Point: 14.01K (-259.14°C) Critical Temperature: 33K (-240°C) Discovery Hydrogen was discovered in 1766 by English physicist Henry Cavendish. Cavendish conducted numerous experiments and eventually identified that hydrogen was a unique gas with its own set of properties. Fast forward to today, and the significance of hydrogen is more apparent than ever. This little molecule holds incredible potential as a clean and renewable energy source. Scientists and researchers worldwide are tirelessly working to harness its power and overcome some of the current challenges that come with its production and storage. Sources Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe with nearly 90% of all visible atoms being hydrogen. The first atoms ever created after the Big Bang would have been that of hydrogen and helium which eventually culminated into stars. Due to the intense heat and pressure within the stars the hydrogen is in a state known as plasma and nuclear fission turns the hydrogen atoms into Helium, the next most abundant element. On earth Hydogen is most abundant in the sea where it has been mixed with oxygen to create water. Uses Hydrogen is used in the production of ammonia (NH3), ethanol (alcahol(C2H5OH)) and hydrogen Chloride (HCL) among many other uses. Hydrogen has...
The Lighter Side of Science: Exploring the Wonders of Helium (He)
The Lighter Side of Science: Exploring the Wonders of Helium (He) The Lighter Side of Science: Exploring the Wonders of Helium (He) Basic Information Discovery of Helium Sources of Helium Uses of Helium Liquid Helium in Superconductors Use of Helium by Divers Helium in Balloons and Airships Helium’s Cell Structure Absorption Lines of Helium Emission Lines of Helium Helium (from the Greek helios meaning Sun) Classification: Non-metallic Atomic Mass: 1.00794 g/mol Density: 0.08988g/cm3 Colour: None Boiling Point: 20.268K (-252.87°C Melting Point: 14.01K (-259.14°C) Critical Temperature: 33K (-240°C) The outreaching wave is called the prominence and is composed of ionized Helium that is about 60,000 degrees Kelvin. (Image from NASA) Discovery Discovery: Helium was first detected by French astronomer Pierre Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India on the 18th of August 1868 using spectroscopy. It was evident as a bright yellow line (a wavelength of 587.49 nanometres) in the spectrum of the Chromosphere of the Sun but it was assumed that this line was produced by sodium which produces similar yellow lines. But it was On the 20th of October 1868 English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed the same line and concluded that it was produced by an element in the sun that was as yet un-discovered on earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element after the Greek word for the Sun (helios). Helium was not isolated on earth until the 26th of March 1895 when a Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsey isolated samples whilst attempting isolate argon. The samples were confirmed to be Helium by Lockyer and English...
Fractions
Fractions another way of saying a part of something. What are fractions? Calculating Fractions Equivalent Fractions Simplifying or Reducing Fractions Improper Fractions Adding Fractions Adding Fractions with the Same Denominator Adding Fractions with Different Denominators Subtracting Fractions Subtracting Fractions with the Same Denominator Subtracting Fractions with Different Denominators What are fractions? A fraction is another way of saying a part of something. If you had a pie and cut it so you had 4 equal amounts then you would have cut it into quarters. If you then ate one of those quarters you would have 3 quarters (3/4) left which is a fraction of the original cake. Three quarters is written as a fraction below. The top number is known as a numerator while the bottom number is called a denominator. Calculating Fractions What if you had £500 and you had to pay 1/5 in tax leaving 4/5 to be divided between you and your business partner. So how would you calculate how much you would get? First you would divide £500 into fifths which is 5 lots of £100. One fifth (or £100) would be given to the tax man while you and your business partner get 2 fifths each, so that’s 2 lots of £100. Therefore 2/5 of £500 is £200. Now try 2/3 of £21. First we divide 21 by 3 giving us 7 and then we multiply the 7 by 2 giving us 14. So 2/3 of £21 is £14. Equivalent Fractions An equivalent fraction is when the comparability of the numerator...
Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation is the process used to separate a liquid mixture into its component parts or in some cases individual elements. What is Fractional Distillation The fractioning chamber or fractioning column Fractional Distillation of Air Fractional distillation of crude oil Fractional Distillation in a lab What is Fractional Distillation This is a process used to separate a liquid mixture into its component parts or in some cases individual elements. A common method for this is to heat the mixture or compound causing the components to evaporate. The mixture is heated in a large container with several condensing ‘plates’ at different heights; as the mixture heats up and evaporates the various components condense at different temperatures. As the container is heated from the bottom the components that are less volatile and have a high boiling point are separated at the bottom and those that are more volatile and a lower boiling point are separated at the top. This process is commonly used in the extraction of petrol, diesel etc from crude oil and takes place in the fractioning chamber/column. An exception to this type of fractional distillation is the extraction of Nitrogen from air. This process involves cooling atmosphere and allowing the nitrogen to boil off as nitrogen gas, which it does at a higher temperature in the top of the chamber. Image of an Italian double-effect distillation plant for recovery of solvent, used for the treatment of crude oil Image by Luigi Chiesa and released under Creative Commons Attribution and ShareAlike License. The fractioning chamber or fractioning column The...
Structure of the Earth
Essentially the structure of the earth consists of a hard iron core which sits at the centre of a molten liquid sphere surrounded by a solid crust of rock. But there is much more to these layers each with very specific properties which are required for life on earth. Structure of the Earth The Inner Core The Outer Core The Mantle The Lower Mantle The Upper Mantle Asthenosphere Lithosphere The Mohorovicic discontinuity The Crust Oceanic Crust Continental Crust Structure of the Earth Essentially the structure of the earth consists of a hard iron core which sits at the centre of a molten liquid sphere surrounded by a solid crust of rock. But there is much more to these layers each with very specific properties which are required for life on earth. The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago with along with the rest of our solar system (click on the link to learn how the solar system was formed) but due to impact with another planetoid shortly after (see origin of the earth) the earth reformed with a very large iron core. For many billions of years after its formation the earth was a very hot ball of molten rock with a molten iron core but over time through many processes the earth began to cool and new layers began to form the structure of the earth as we know it today. The Inner core The Inner core is the deepest layer in the structure of the earth. It consists of a solid ball, mostly iron with...
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is found in every cell of every living organism on the planet. It is the code which contains the genetic makeup of the organism. The Structure of DNA Polynucleotides Dideoxynucleic acid molecule consisting of three components: a nitrogenous base, either a purine or pyrimidine; a pentose sugar, either ribose or deoxyribose and a phosphate group. A nitrogenous base + a sugar= nucleoside; a nucleoside + a phosphate= nucleotide. Purine: nine member double ring: Adenine and Guanine (A and G) Pyrimidine: six member single ring: Cytosine and Thymine or Uracil in Rna (C, T and U) A purine bases will always bind to its corresponding pyrimidine base: A-T/U and C-G. Structure of DNA Each carbon atom of the pentose sugars is labelled with a prime sign eg. C-1’. The C-1’ atom of the pentose sugar is linked to the nitrogenous base and C-3’ and 5’ atoms are termini of a nucleic acid molecule. At the C-2’ position, deoxyribose has a hydrogen atom whereas ribose has a hydroxyl group. The presence of the OH group distinguishes RNA from DNA. http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/iGen3_02-07_Figure-L.jpg Polynucleotides Two nucleotides are joined together by a phosphate group linked to two sugars. The phosphoric acid is joined to the two OH groups on the sugars by an ester linkage on both sides, creating a phosphodiester bond. At one end of the chain there is a free 3’- hydroxyl (OH) group and at the other end, a free 5’- phosphate group. Two nucleotides joined together are called a dinucleotide, three is...
Diamond Formation
Diamond formation occurs naturally in the earth’s crust but it is now possible to produce diamonds artificially in labs from any carbon. What Are Diamonds Age and origin of Diamonds Diamond Formation in The Earth’s Crust Diamond Formation through Plate Tectonics Diamond Formation in Space What Are Diamonds Diamond formation occurs from the same element as coal and graphite (carbon) but under immense pressure and heat energy, normally only found naturally in the depth of the earth or in outer space, that carbon becomes the strongest material on earth. Diamonds immense strength is due to the complex lattice shown on the left. This pattern continues throughout the diamond and each carbon atom (shown as black spheres) is bonded (shown as grey tubes) in such a way that gives the entire structure unrivalled strength. Age and Origin of Diamonds Diamonds are not formed by coal as commonly thought. In fact most diamonds were formed before plant life, and therefore any possibility of coal, began. Through radioactive dating it has been possible to calculate that most diamonds date back to the Precambrian eon which means they were formed approximately 100 million years before life. Coal is a sedimentary rock that is formed of carbon from decomposed organic material. Diamonds however are found in igneous rocks which are formed from cooled molten lava. Diamonds are formed in the Earth’s mantle, approximately 90 to 120 miles below the surface. This region, known as the diamond stability zone, is characterized by extreme temperature and pressure conditions. The process begins with carbon atoms being subjected to intense heat and pressure, causing them to rearrange their...
Deuterium
Basic Information Discovery of Deuterium Sources of Deuterium Uses of Deuterium Deuterium in stars Energy Production through Nuclear Fusion Ultra Dense Deuterium Deuterium’s Cell Structure Electron Orbit of Deuterium Absorption Lines of Deuterium Emission Lines of Deuterium Deuterium – Greek deuteros meaning ‘second’ (Heavy Hydrogen) Classification: Non-metallic Atomic Mass: 2.01 Density: 0.168 kg/m3 Colour: Boiling Point: -249.6 °C Melting Point: -254.6 °C Critical Temperature: -234.8 °C Discovery: American physical chemist Harold Urey discovered Deuterium in 1931 for which he received a Nobel prize. Sources: Deuterium was created with normal hydrogen and helium just after the big bang and, due to deuterium’s mutation in stars, its level of abundance has reduced since then. Although produced in stars through nuclear fusion, deuterium particles are quickly fused into helium atoms. Uses of Deuterium: Heavy hydrogen, as Deuterium is sometimes called, is used to create heavy water which has many uses in the field of nuclear power and uranium refinement for nuclear weapons. Hydrogen in its basic form contains one proton within its nucleus where as deuterium, which is a stable isotope of hydrogen, contains one proton and one neutron. Due to the extra neutron its atomic mass is doubled hence its nickname of heavy hydrogen. Applications of Deuterium: Nuclear Fusion: One of the most significant applications of deuterium is in nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion, the process of combining atomic nuclei to release energy, often involves the fusion of deuterium nuclei. This reaction releases an immense amount of energy, making it a potential solution to the world’s energy crisis. Aerospace Propulsion: Deuterium has also found use in aerospace propulsion systems. Its high...
Decay Chains
Decay Chains is the name given to the stages of radioactive decay of unstable isotopes or elements. Some radioactive isotopes decay into stable isotopes directly but some unstable or radioactive isotopes decay into other unstable isotopes many times before becoming stable and these stages are explained in the ‘decay chain’. These decay chains can be useful when radioactively dating samples by comparing the ratios of the isotopes in the chain. Decay Chain of Uranium-238 Below is the decay chain of Uranium-238 which is the most common isotope on earth. The stages shown in the table are the most likely outcome of radioactive decay naturally however at some stages it is possible for some of the elements to succumb to either alpha or beta decay which obviously changes the outcome. The possible variations and their likely hood and are shown in the key below. Stage Symbol Element Radiation Half-Life Decay Product 1 U-238 Uranium-238 alpha 4,460,000,000 years Th-234 (92U238 = 2He4 + 90Th234) 2 Th-234 Thorium-234 beta (β) 24.1 days Pa-234 (90Th234 = 91Pa234 + 0e-1) (see #1) 3 Pa-234 Protactinium-234 beta (β) 1.17 minutes U-234 (91Pa234 = 92U234 + 0e-1) (see #1) 4 U-234 Uranium-234 alpha 247,000 years Th-230 (92U234 = 90Th230 + 2He4) 5 Th-230 Thorium-230 alpha 80,000 years Ra-226 (90Th230 = 88Ra226 + 2He4) 6 Ra-226 Radium-226 alpha 1,602 years Rn-222 (88Ra226 = 86Ra222 + 2He4) 7 Rn-222 Radon-222 alpha 3.82 days Po-218 (86Ra222 = 84Po218 + 2He4) 8 Po-218 Polonium-218 alpha 3.05 minutes Pb-214 (84Po218 = 82Pb214 + 2He4) (see #2) 9 Pb-214 Lead-214 beta (β) 27 minutes Bi-214 (82Pb214 = 83Bi214...