{"id":19671,"date":"2025-02-04T02:09:44","date_gmt":"2025-02-04T02:09:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/"},"modified":"2025-02-10T18:28:01","modified_gmt":"2025-02-10T18:28:01","slug":"permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/","title":{"rendered":"Permian Epoch (299 \u2013 252 million years ago) \u2013 Pangaea forms; mass extinction wipes out ~90% of species."},"content":{"rendered":"\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms.jpg\" alt=\"Permian Epoch - Pangaea forms\" class=\"wp-image-19692\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms-768x768.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>The Permian Epoch, spanning from approximately 299 to 252 million years ago, represents the final period of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/paleozoic-era-541-252-million-years-ago\/\" title=\"Paleozoic Era (541 \u2013 252 million years ago)\">Paleozoic Era<\/a>. This epoch is characterised by significant geological, climatic, and biological changes that laid the groundwork for the Mesozoic Era. The name &#8220;Permian&#8221; is derived from the region of Perm in Russia, where rocks from this period were first studied.<\/p>\n<p>The Permian is notable not only for its rich fossil record but also for being the last chapter before one of the most catastrophic mass extinction events in Earth&#8217;s history. During the Permian, the planet underwent profound transformations, both in terms of its physical landscape and its biological diversity.<b> The epoch is marked by the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea, which had far-reaching implications for global climate patterns and ecosystems.<\/b><\/p>\n<p>The Permian is also significant for the evolution of various life forms, including the ancestors of modern reptiles and mammals. As we delve deeper into this epoch, we will explore its geological formations, climatic conditions, and the life forms that thrived during this time, as well as the dramatic events that ultimately led to a mass extinction.<\/p>\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The Permian Epoch, lasting from 299 to 252 million years ago, was the last period of the Paleozoic Era and preceded the Triassic Period.<\/li>\n<li>Pangaea, a supercontinent formed during the Permian Epoch, brought together the Earth&#8217;s landmasses into a single large landmass.<\/li>\n<li>The climate during the Permian Epoch was generally warm and dry, leading to the spread of deserts and the formation of vast coal deposits.<\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/triassic-epoch-252-201-million-years-ago-first-dinosaurs-and-mammals-appear\/\" title=\"Triassic Epoch (252 \u2013 201 million years ago) \u2013 First dinosaurs and mammals appear\">Permian-Triassic extinction event<\/a>, also known as the Great Dying, occurred at the end of the Permian Epoch and resulted in the loss of over 90% of marine species and 70% of land species.<\/li>\n<li>The mass extinction event had a significant impact on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/marine-conservation-coral-reefs-oceans-etc\/\" title=\"Marine conservation (coral reefs, oceans, etc.)\">marine life<\/a>, leading to the loss of many marine species and the restructuring of marine ecosystems.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h2>Formation of Pangaea<\/h2>\n<p>The formation of Pangaea was one of the most significant <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/timeline\/\" title=\"Timeline\">geological events<\/a> during the Permian Epoch. This supercontinent was formed through the gradual collision and amalgamation of earlier landmasses, including Gondwana and Laurasia. By the late Carboniferous period, these landmasses began to converge, leading to a unified landmass that dominated the Earth&#8217;s surface.<\/p>\n<p>The process of continental drift played a crucial role in this formation, driven by tectonic plate movements that reshaped the planet&#8217;s geography. Pangaea&#8217;s formation had profound implications for both climate and biodiversity. The vast expanse of land created a range of environments, from arid deserts to lush forests.<\/p>\n<p>However, the interior regions of Pangaea experienced extreme temperature fluctuations due to their distance from oceanic influences. This resulted in a predominantly dry climate across much of the supercontinent, which in turn affected the types of flora and fauna that could thrive there. The unification of landmasses also facilitated the migration of species across vast distances, leading to increased competition and diversification among organisms.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea_to_present-1.gif\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-19698\" src=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea_to_present-1.gif\" alt=\"Pangaea_to_present\" width=\"623\" height=\"777\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h2>Climate and Environment during the Permian Epoch<\/h2>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" id=\"3\" style=\"max-width: 100%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 70%;\" src=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/abcdhe-29.jpg\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The climate during the Permian Epoch was marked by significant variability, influenced largely by the configuration of Pangaea. The supercontinent&#8217;s vast size meant that many areas were far removed from oceanic moisture, resulting in arid conditions in central regions. This led to the development of extensive desert landscapes, particularly in what is now North America and parts of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Conversely, coastal areas and regions near the equator experienced more <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/humid-subtropical-cfa-cwa-hot-humid-summers-with-mild-winters-rainfall-throughout-the-year\/\" title=\"Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa): Hot, humid summers with mild winters; rainfall throughout the year.\">humid conditions<\/a>, supporting lush vegetation and diverse ecosystems. The environmental conditions during this epoch were conducive to the proliferation of certain plant groups, particularly gymnosperms such as conifers and cycads. These plants adapted well to the dry conditions and became dominant in many terrestrial ecosystems.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of extensive coal-forming swamps in equatorial regions also indicates that there were pockets of rich biodiversity amidst the harsher climates. Marine environments were equally diverse, with extensive coral reefs and a variety of marine organisms thriving in shallow seas that covered large portions of Pangaea&#8217;s coastline.<\/p>\n<h2>Mass Extinction Event<\/h2>\n<p>The Permian Epoch is perhaps best known for the mass extinction event that occurred at its close, often referred to as &#8220;The Great Dying.&#8221; This event is considered the most severe extinction event in Earth&#8217;s history, with estimates suggesting that up to 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species went extinct. The causes of this catastrophic event are still debated among scientists, but several factors are believed to have contributed to it. One prominent theory suggests that massive volcanic eruptions in what is now Siberia released vast amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.<\/p>\n<p>This led to dramatic climate changes, including global warming and ocean acidification.<\/p>\n<blockquote style=\"br { display: none; margin: 1.5em 0; padding: 1.2em 1.5em; line-height: 1.6; height: 0; }background-color: #f8f9fa; border-left: 4px solid #e9ecef; font-size: 1.1em; color: #212529; border-radius: 4px; box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);\">\n<p>Additionally, changes in sea levels and anoxic conditions in oceans further exacerbated the crisis for marine life.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The combination of these factors created an inhospitable environment for many species, leading to widespread extinction across both land and sea.<\/p>\n<h2>Impact on Marine Life<\/h2>\n<p>The impact of the mass extinction event on marine life was particularly devastating. Prior to this event, marine ecosystems were rich with diversity, featuring a wide array of organisms such as trilobites, brachiopods, and various types of corals. However, as environmental conditions deteriorated, many species could not adapt quickly enough to survive.<b> <\/b><\/p>\n<p>The loss of oxygen in ocean waters created dead zones where life could not sustain itself, leading to a collapse of marine food webs. The aftermath saw a significant reduction in biodiversity within marine ecosystems.<b> The once-thriving coral reefs were decimated, and many groups of organisms faced extinction.<\/b><\/p>\n<p>For instance, ammonites and certain bivalves experienced drastic declines in their populations. However, some resilient species managed to survive this tumultuous period, setting the stage for future evolutionary developments in marine life during the subsequent Mesozoic Era.<\/p>\n<h2>Impact on Land Life<\/h2>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" id=\"2\" style=\"max-width: 100%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 70%;\" src=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/image-59.jpg\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The effects of the mass extinction event extended beyond marine environments; terrestrial ecosystems also faced catastrophic losses. The extinction event disrupted food chains and ecological relationships among land-dwelling organisms. Many dominant groups such as large amphibians and early reptiles suffered significant declines or disappeared entirely.<\/p>\n<p>The loss of plant life due to changing climates further compounded these challenges for herbivorous animals. In particular, the decline of gymnosperms and other plant groups created a ripple effect throughout terrestrial ecosystems. Herbivores that relied on these plants for sustenance faced food shortages, leading to further declines in their populations.<\/p>\n<p>As a result, carnivorous species that depended on these herbivores also experienced population crashes. The intricate balance of life on land was severely disrupted, leading to a period characterised by ecological instability.<\/p>\n<h2>Recovery and Evolution after the Mass Extinction<\/h2>\n<p>Following the mass extinction event at the end of the Permian Epoch, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/planet-earth\/\" title=\"Planet Earth\">Earth entered<\/a> a phase of recovery that would eventually give rise to new forms of life. The Triassic Period marked a significant turning point as ecosystems began to stabilise and diversify once more. This recovery was not instantaneous; it took millions of years for biodiversity levels to return to pre-extinction levels.<\/p>\n<p>During this recovery phase, new groups of organisms emerged and evolved to fill ecological niches left vacant by extinct species. Early dinosaurs began to appear alongside other reptiles that adapted to various environments. Mammal-like reptiles known as synapsids also diversified during this time, laying the groundwork for future mammalian evolution.<\/p>\n<p>The Triassic saw a gradual shift towards more complex ecosystems as life forms adapted to changing conditions and began to exploit new resources.<\/p>\n<h2>Legacy of the Permian Epoch<\/h2>\n<p>The legacy of the Permian Epoch is profound and multifaceted.<\/p>\n<blockquote style=\"br { display: none; margin: 1.5em 0; padding: 1.2em 1.5em; line-height: 1.6; height: 0; }background-color: #f8f9fa; border-left: 4px solid #e9ecef; font-size: 1.1em; color: #212529; border-radius: 4px; box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);\">\n<p>It serves as a critical chapter in Earth&#8217;s history that highlights both the fragility and resilience of life on our planet.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The events that transpired during this epoch shaped not only subsequent geological periods but also influenced evolutionary trajectories that would <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/biodiversity-and-ecosystem-preservation\/\" title=\"Biodiversity and Ecosystem Preservation\">define future biodiversity<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The lessons learned from studying the Permian Epoch are particularly relevant today as we face contemporary environmental challenges. Understanding how past mass extinctions occurred and how life rebounded can provide valuable insights into current biodiversity crises driven by human activity. The Permian serves as a reminder of both the potential for catastrophic change and the remarkable ability of life to adapt and evolve in response to adversity.<\/p>\n<p>As we continue to explore this epoch through paleontological research, we gain deeper insights into our planet&#8217;s history and its ongoing narrative of survival amidst change.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h2>FAQs<\/h2>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3>What is the Permian Epoch?<\/h3>\n<p>The Permian Epoch was a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/geological-epochs-earths-history\/\" title=\"Geological Epochs (Earth\u2019s History)\">geologic period<\/a> that occurred from 299 to 252 million years ago. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era and is followed by the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era.<\/p>\n<h3>What is Pangaea?<\/h3>\n<p>Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, about 335 to 175 million years ago. It was surrounded by the Panthalassic Ocean.<\/p>\n<h3>What caused the mass extinction during the Permian Epoch?<\/h3>\n<p>The mass extinction event at the end of the Permian Epoch, known as the Permian-Triassic extinction event, is the most severe known extinction event in Earth&#8217;s history. It is believed to have been caused by a combination of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/what-are-volcanoes-and-how-do-they-form\/\" title=\"What Are Volcanoes and How Do They Form?\">volcanic activity<\/a>, climate change, and possibly an asteroid impact.<\/p>\n<h3>How many species were wiped out during the mass extinction event?<\/h3>\n<p>It is estimated that approximately 90% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species were wiped out during the Permian-Triassic extinction event.<\/p>\n<h3>What were the environmental effects of the mass extinction event?<\/h3>\n<p>The mass extinction event led to significant changes in Earth&#8217;s environment, including a decrease in oxygen levels in the oceans and an increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. This had long-lasting effects on the evolution of life on Earth.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The Permian Epoch, spanning from approximately 299 to 252 million years ago, represents the final period of the Paleozoic Era. [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":19692,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_thumbnail_id":["19692"],"yoast_wpseo_title":["Permian Epoch (299 \u2013 252 million years ago) \u2013 Pangaea forms; mass extinction wipes out ~90% of species.\r"],"_yoast_wpseo_title":["Permian Epoch (299 \u2013 252 million years ago) \u2013 Pangaea forms; mass extinction wipes out ~90% of species."],"yoast_wpseo_metadesc":["The Permian Epoch, spanning from approximately 299 to 252 million years ago, represents the final period of the Paleozoic Era. 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mass extinction wipes out ~90% of species.","description":"The Permian Epoch, spanning from approximately 299 to 252 million years ago, represents the final period of the Paleozoic Era.","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/","og_locale":"en_GB","og_type":"article","og_title":"Permian Epoch (299 \u2013 252 million years ago) \u2013 Pangaea forms; mass extinction wipes out ~90% of species.","og_description":"The Permian Epoch, spanning from approximately 299 to 252 million years ago, represents the final period of the Paleozoic Era.","og_url":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/","og_site_name":"Earth Site Education","article_publisher":"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/people\/Earth-Site-Education\/61556359432402\/","article_published_time":"2025-02-04T02:09:44+00:00","article_modified_time":"2025-02-10T18:28:01+00:00","og_image":[{"width":1024,"height":1024,"url":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/Pangaea-forms.jpg","type":"image\/jpeg"}],"author":"Keir Chapman","twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_misc":{"Written by":"Keir Chapman","Estimated reading time":"8 minutes"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Article","@id":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/#article","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/permian-epoch-299-252-million-years-ago-pangaea-forms-mass-extinction-wipes-out-90-of-species\/"},"author":{"name":"Keir Chapman","@id":"https:\/\/www.earth-site.co.uk\/Education\/#\/schema\/person\/f028ca91f88fe2e9e578f24056a12819"},"headline":"Permian Epoch (299 \u2013 252 million years ago) \u2013 Pangaea forms; 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