The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement, signed in 1993, was a comprehensive peace deal aimed at ending the Rwandan Civil War between the Rwandan government and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). In essence, it sought to establish a transitional power-sharing government, integrate armed forces, ensure the safe return of refugees, and lay the groundwork for a democratic future in Rwanda. Sadly, its implementation was derailed by the events of 1994.
Unpacking the Rwandan Civil War: The Lead-Up to Arusha
To really get to grips with the Arusha Agreement, we need to understand the conflict it was trying to resolve. The Rwandan Civil War, which began in 1990, wasn’t just a sudden outburst; it was the culmination of decades of simmering tensions and political grievances, primarily between the Hutu-dominated government and the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF).
The Root Causes of Conflict
The seeds of the conflict were sown deep in Rwanda’s history, exacerbated by colonial policies and post-independence political manoeuvrings. The Belgians, during their colonial rule, had institutionalised ethnic divisions, creating identity cards that categorised people as Hutu or Tutsi and often favouring the Tutsis. This created a lasting resentment among the Hutu majority.
After independence in 1962, a Hutu-led government came to power, and many Tutsis fled the country, becoming refugees in neighbouring nations like Uganda. These exiles, often second or third generation, formed the backbone of the RPF, which launched its invasion of Rwanda in October 1990. Their stated aim was to secure the right of return for refugees and establish a more inclusive, democratic government.
The Dynamics of the Early War Years
The early years of the war were marked by intense fighting, humanitarian crises, and a complex interplay of internal and external pressures. The Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), supported by France, initially pushed back the RPF. However, the RPF, with its disciplined forces and strong leadership, gradually gained ground in the north of the country.
The war had devastating consequences for civilians. Displacement was widespread, and the rhetoric from the government side increasingly demonised Tutsis, both within Rwanda and the RPF. This period saw the rise of extremist Hutu power factions who viewed any concessions to the RPF as a betrayal. International mediation efforts began early on, recognising the potential for wider regional instability, and these ultimately led to the Arusha peace talks.
The Arusha Peace Talks: A Detailed Look at the Negotiations
The Arusha Peace Talks, held in Arusha, Tanzania, were a protracted and complex series of negotiations that spanned several years, from 1992 to 1993. Facilitated by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and various international observers, the talks aimed to hammer out a comprehensive agreement to end the conflict.
Key Players and Their Stances
The primary parties involved were the Rwandan government, then led by President Juvénal Habyarimana, and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The Rwandan government delegation was a complex mix, representing various political parties, some more moderate, others increasingly hardline ‘Hutu Power’ elements. This internal division within the government camp often made negotiations challenging.
The RPF, led by Paul Kagame, presented a united front. Their main demands centred on the right of return for refugees, a power-sharing arrangement that would ensure their representation, and a reformed military and judiciary. They were wary of superficial reforms and pushed for deep structural changes to address the root causes of the conflict.
Mediators, including representatives from Tanzania, Uganda, and the United States, played a crucial role in bringing the parties together and maintaining momentum, often through shuttle diplomacy and pressure tactics. Their objective was to bridge the significant trust deficit between the warring factions.
The Stages of Negotiation and Breakthroughs
The talks were not a single event but a series of protocols and agreements, each tackling a specific aspect of the peace process.
The Ceasefire and Rules of Engagement
Early discussions focused on establishing a sustainable ceasefire, building on previous, often fragile, agreements. This involved defining zones of control, monitoring mechanisms, and the crucial step of allowing a neutral international force (later to become UNAMIR) to oversee the ceasefire. Agreeing on troop cantonment and disengagement was a vital first step, setting the stage for political negotiations.
Power-Sharing Arrangements
This was arguably the most contentious and difficult part of the negotiations. The RPF demanded significant representation in a transitional government, arguing that the existing system was discriminatory and unrepresentative. The agreement ultimately outlined a broad-based transitional government (BBTG) that would include representatives from the existing government parties, the RPF, and other opposition parties.
The BBTG was to be composed of a President, a Prime Minister, a Cabinet, and a Transitional National Assembly. The agreement specified the number of ministerial portfolios each party would hold, with the RPF securing a significant share, including key ministries. This was a major concession from the government and a breakthrough for the RPF, signalling a willingness to genuinely share power.
Integration of Armed Forces
Another highly sensitive area was the integration of the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) and the RPF’s armed wing, the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA). This involved merging two historically adversarial forces into a new, unified national army. The agreement stipulated the size and composition of the new army and gendarmerie (national police force), with a specific quota for RPF personnel.
The goal was to create a professional, apolitical army that would serve all Rwandans, moving away from the highly politicised and ethnically skewed FAR. This required detailed plans for demobilisation, re-training, and establishing new command structures.
Repatriation of Refugees and Displaced Persons
A core demand of the RPF from the outset was the safe and voluntary return of Rwandan refugees. The agreement included detailed provisions for the establishment of a National Commission for Repatriation, which would coordinate with international organisations to facilitate the return and reintegration of millions of Rwandans who had been living in exile for decades. This included measures for providing assistance, ensuring security, and addressing issues of land and property restitution.
Rule of Law and Human Rights
The Arusha Agreement also contained strong provisions for strengthening the rule of law, protecting human rights, and establishing an independent judiciary. It called for the abolition of discriminatory laws, the establishment of a National Commission for Human Rights, and the prosecution of individuals responsible for human rights abuses. This was a crucial element for building trust and ensuring a more just society post-conflict.
The culmination of these negotiations was the signing of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement on 4 August 1993. It was hailed as a significant diplomatic achievement, offering a detailed roadmap for peace and democratic transition in Rwanda.
Key Pillars of the Arusha Agreement: What It Actually Said
The Arusha Agreement wasn’t just a general statement of intent; it was a highly detailed document, running to hundreds of pages, outlining specific mechanisms and structures for peace. It’s crucial to understand these core components to appreciate its potential impact.
Broad-Based Transitional Government (BBTG)
This was arguably the political centrepiece of the agreement. The BBTG was designed to be a power-sharing arrangement that would govern Rwanda during a transitional period, leading to multi-party elections. The idea was to move away from the ethnically exclusive government and include a wider spectrum of political representation.
Composition and Distribution of Power
The agreement meticulously specified the composition of the BBTG:
- The Presidency: The existing President, Juvénal Habyarimana, was to remain President during the transitional period.
- The Prime Minister: The Prime Minister was to be appointed from one of the government parties (other than the President’s party) in consultation with the RPF and other political parties.
- The Cabinet: The Cabinet was to consist of 21 ministers. The agreement allocated specific numbers of portfolios to each party:
- The President’s party (MRND) would get 5 ministers.
- The RPF would get 5 ministers.
- Other opposition parties (MDR, PSD, PL) would get 4 ministers each.
- The small PDC party would get 1 minister.
This precise distribution aimed to ensure no single party could dominate and that the RPF had a substantial say in government decisions. Key ministries were also allocated to ensure balance.
- The Transitional National Assembly (TNA): This legislative body was to have 70 members. Again, specific quotas were set:
- The RPF would have 35 members (50% of the seats).
- The government parties and other opposition parties would share the remaining 35 seats.
The TNA would be responsible for legislative oversight, approving government policies, and enacting laws necessary for the transition. The large RPF representation here was a clear signal of the shift in power dynamics.
The BBTG was to function for a maximum of 22 months, culminating in national elections. This period was intended to allow for reconciliation, demilitarisation, and the creation of a democratic framework.
Integration of Armed Forces and Security Structures
This was a profoundly sensitive and technically complex aspect of the agreement, as it aimed to merge two warring armies into a single national force.
The New National Army
The agreement stipulated the creation of a new, unified Rwandan National Army (RNA). Its total strength was capped at 13,000 personnel. The composition was crucial:
- 60% of the RNA personnel would come from the existing Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR).
- 40% would come from the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) of the RPF.
This was a massive undertaking, requiring the demobilisation of excess soldiers from both sides, extensive training programmes, and the establishment of a new, unified command structure. The goal was to create a professional, non-partisan army loyal to the new state, not to a specific ethnic group or political faction.
The National Gendarmerie
In addition to the army, a new National Gendarmerie (police force) was to be established, with a maximum strength of 6,000 personnel. The distribution here was slightly different:
- 60% from the existing Gendarmerie.
- 40% from the RPF.
This new gendarmerie was intended to maintain internal security and uphold law and order across the country.
Disarmament and Demobilisation
The agreement also included detailed provisions for the disarmament and demobilisation of all combatants not integrated into the new forces. This involved collecting weapons, providing demobilised soldiers with reintegration packages, and establishing cantonment sites where troops would await integration or demobilisation. This was essential for reducing the overall level of militarisation in the country.
Repatriation and Resettlement of Refugees
Addressing the issue of refugees was fundamental to achieving lasting peace, given that the return of refugees was a core RPF objective.
National Commission for Repatriation
The agreement called for the establishment of a National Commission for Repatriation, tasked with facilitating the safe, voluntary, and dignified return of Rwandan refugees, many of whom had been in exile for decades. This commission would coordinate with UNHCR and other international agencies to provide assistance for their return and reintegration.
Property and Land Issues
Returning refugees often faced complex issues regarding property and land, which may have been occupied by others in their absence. The agreement recognised this challenge and included provisions for setting up mechanisms to address these disputes fairly, aiming for reconciliation rather than further conflict.
Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Democracy
Beyond the political and military aspects, the agreement laid out a vision for a more just and democratic Rwanda.
Human Rights Commission
A National Commission for Human Rights was to be established, responsible for investigating human rights abuses, promoting human rights education, and ensuring accountability. This was vital for building trust and preventing future atrocities.
Judicial Reform
The agreement called for significant reforms to the judiciary, aiming to ensure its independence, impartiality, and effectiveness. This included revising laws to eliminate discrimination and prosecuting those responsible for crimes.
Democratic Principles
The Arusha Agreement committed Rwanda to multi-party democracy, freedom of expression, association, and the protection of fundamental human rights. It envisioned a new constitution that would enshrine these principles, to be adopted after the transitional period and prior to elections.
In summary, the Arusha Agreement was a truly comprehensive peace plan, meticulously detailing every aspect from power-sharing to military integration, refugee return, and human rights. It represented a negotiated settlement that, if fully implemented, offered a pathway to a stable and democratic future for Rwanda.
The Promise and Peril: International Involvement and Monitoring
The Arusha Agreement wasn’t just a domestic affair; its success hinged significantly on international support, both for its negotiation and, crucially, for its implementation. The international community played a multifaceted role, ranging from facilitation to providing the muscle for monitoring.
The Role of Mediators and Guarantors
Throughout the protracted negotiations, several international actors stepped in as mediators and guarantors. Tanzania, under President Ali Hassan Mwinyi, was particularly instrumental, hosting the talks in Arusha and providing diplomatic leadership. Uganda also played a key role, given its proximity and the fact that the RPF had launched its invasion from Ugandan territory.
Other international observers and facilitators included representatives from the OAU, the United States, France, and Belgium. Their presence lent legitimacy to the process, helped to bridge divides, and exerted pressure on both parties to make concessions. They acted as a neutral third party, crucial in an environment of deep mistrust.
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)
A cornerstone of the Arusha Agreement’s implementation plan was the deployment of a United Nations peacekeeping mission. This became the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), established by UN Security Council Resolution 872 in October 1993, shortly after the signing of the agreement.
UNAMIR’s Mandate
UNAMIR’s mandate was explicitly tied to the Arusha Agreement. Its primary tasks included:
- Monitoring the ceasefire: Observing the cessation of hostilities and investigating any breaches.
- Monitoring the security situation: Overseeing the demobilisation and cantonment of troops, and the integration of armed forces.
- Ensuring the security of Kigali: Establishing a secure zone in the capital to allow for the safe functioning of the transitional institutions.
- Assisting with the repatriation of refugees: Providing a secure environment for the return of refugees and displaced persons.
- Assisting with demining operations: Clearing landmines to facilitate safe movement and resettlement.
- Providing security for humanitarian assistance: Protecting the delivery of aid to those in need.
- Monitoring the electoral process: In due course, providing security and oversight for the planned national elections.
Challenges and Constraints
From the outset, UNAMIR faced significant challenges. Its initial force strength was relatively small – around 2,500 troops – far less than what UNAMIR’s Force Commander, General Roméo Dallaire, believed was necessary to effectively implement the complex agreement across the entire country. The mandate itself was also restrictive, generally limiting the peacekeepers to monitoring and observation, with a limited capacity for robust intervention or enforcement.
Furthermore, political will from UN member states to provide troops and resources was often lacking. The Rwandan parties themselves, particularly hardline elements within the government, were sometimes obstructive, delaying the deployment of forces and hindering UNAMIR’s operations. The persistent distrust between the government and the RPF continued to plague the early stages of UNAMIR’s deployment, making its task incredibly difficult.
The Role of Bilateral Donors
Beyond the UN, various bilateral donors and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) were ready to provide financial and technical assistance for the post-conflict reconstruction and development phases outlined in the agreement. This included support for refugee return, economic recovery, institutional building, and human rights programmes. The expectation was that once the political framework was in place, a broader international effort would kick in to help Rwanda rebuild.
The international community, through its various arms, thus played a critical role in bringing the Arusha Agreement into being and was poised to oversee its implementation. However, the tragic events of 1994 would expose the limitations of this international engagement and the fragility of the peace that had been so painstakingly negotiated.
The Unravelling: Why Arusha Failed
| Aspect | Description | Date | Significance | Parties Involved |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agreement Name | The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement | 5 August 2000 | Framework to end the Burundian civil war and promote peace | Burundian Government, CNDD-FDD, FNL, and other political groups |
| Main Objectives | Power-sharing, disarmament, democratic governance, and human rights protection | N/A | Establishes a transitional government and promotes national unity | All Burundian political factions and armed groups |
| Key Provisions | Creation of transitional institutions, integration of armed forces, and electoral process | N/A | Ensures inclusive political participation and security sector reform | Burundian political parties and armed groups |
| Implementation Status | Partially implemented with ongoing challenges | 2000 – Present | Reduced violence but some factions remained active | Burundian government, international mediators, rebel groups |
| International Support | Facilitated by the United Nations and regional bodies like the African Union | 2000 onwards | Provided peacekeeping forces and political mediation | UN, AU, East African Community |
Despite the detailed provisions and the optimistic signing ceremony, the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement ultimately failed to bring lasting peace to Rwanda. Its promise was shattered by the horrific events of April 1994, which saw the start of the Rwandan Genocide. Understanding why this meticulously crafted agreement collapsed is crucial.
Lack of Political Will and Entrenched Extremism
Perhaps the most significant factor in the agreement’s failure was the deep-seated lack of genuine political will, particularly from certain powerful factions within the Rwandan government. While President Habyarimana had signed the agreement, he faced immense pressure and opposition from hardline Hutu Power elements within his own party (MRND) and allied extremist parties (like the CDR).
These extremists actively undermined the agreement from its inception. They viewed any power-sharing with the RPF as a betrayal and a threat to their dominance. They systematically propagated anti-Tutsi propaganda through state media and hate radio (like RTLM), fueling ethnic hatred and preparing the ground for violence. Their objective was not peace but the consolidation of their power, even if it meant resorting to genocide.
Delays in Implementation
The agreement was plagued by persistent delays in its implementation. The Broad-Based Transitional Government (BBTG) was never fully installed. The RPF contingent was in Kigali, ready to take up its positions, but the government continually stalled on appointing its ministers and inaugurating the Transitional National Assembly. These delays were not accidental; they were part of a deliberate strategy by hardliners to prevent the power-sharing mechanism from taking root.
Similarly, the integration of the armed forces, a highly sensitive issue, was making little progress. The FAR, particularly its extremist elements, had no intention of genuinely sharing power or integrating with the RPF. These delays bred frustration and eroded trust, making the fragile peace even more precarious.
External Pressures and Internal Dynamics
While the international community mediated the agreement and deployed UNAMIR, its efforts were hampered by a combination of factors:
- Limited Mandate and Resources for UNAMIR: As discussed, UNAMIR was deployed with a limited mandate focused on monitoring and an insufficient number of troops and resources. General Dallaire repeatedly warned of an impending catastrophe and requested a more robust mandate and additional troops, but these pleas largely fell on deaf ears at the UN Security Council.
- Lack of Strong International Enforcement: There was a discernible lack of strong, decisive action from major international powers to compel the Rwandan government to implement the agreement fully. The international community, arguably fatigued by other peacekeeping operations, was hesitant to commit further resources or to intervene forcefully in a complex internal conflict.
- Withdrawal of Belgian Troops: Belgium, a key troop contributor to UNAMIR, had historical ties to Rwanda but also faced internal political pressures. The assassination of ten Belgian peacekeepers at the start of the genocide led to Belgium’s immediate withdrawal, further weakening UNAMIR’s already fragile position.
The Trigger: The Assassination of President Habyarimana
The final, catastrophic blow to the Arusha Agreement and the peace process came on 6 April 1994, when the plane carrying President Habyarimana of Rwanda and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi was shot down near Kigali airport. While the responsibility for the attack remains a subject of debate, its immediate consequence was clear: it ignited the Rwandan Genocide.
Hardline Hutu Power elements, who had been meticulously planning for this contingency, immediately blamed the RPF for the assassination. Within hours, extremist militias (Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi), alongside elements of the FAR, began systematically slaughtering Tutsis and moderate Hutus across the country. The existing government apparatus, rather than upholding the Arusha Agreement, actively participated in, or condoned, the genocide.
The Genocide and the RPF Offensive
As the genocide unfolded, UNAMIR found itself overwhelmed and largely helpless, with its mandate and resources inadequate to protect civilians. The international community largely withdrew, leaving the Rwandan people to face unimaginable horrors.
The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), which had been patiently waiting for the implementation of the Arusha Agreement, launched a full-scale offensive from its northern strongholds. Their objective shifted from peaceful power-sharing to stopping the genocide and taking control of the country. After fierce fighting, the RPF eventually defeated the genocidal regime and seized power in July 1994, effectively ending both the genocide and the civil war, but also irrevocably ending any prospect of implementing the Arusha Agreement.
In conclusion, the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement, though a comprehensive and well-intentioned document, ultimately succumbed to the forces of extremism, a lack of genuine political will from key actors, persistent implementation delays, and a hesitant international response. Its failure stands as a tragic testament to the challenges of peacebuilding in the face of genocidal intent.
FAQs
What is the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement?
The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement is a peace treaty signed in 2000 in Arusha, Tanzania, aimed at ending the civil conflict in Burundi. It was designed to establish a framework for political reconciliation, power-sharing, and the establishment of democratic governance in the country following years of ethnic violence and civil war.
Who were the main parties involved in the agreement?
The main parties involved in the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement included the Burundian government, various political parties, and armed groups, particularly the National Council for the Defence of Democracy-Forces for the Defence of Democracy (CNDD-FDD) and the Forces Nationales de Libération (FNL). The agreement was facilitated by the African Union and other international stakeholders.
What were the key provisions of the agreement?
The key provisions of the Arusha Agreement included the establishment of a power-sharing arrangement among different ethnic groups, the creation of a transitional government, the promotion of human rights, and the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission. It also called for the disarmament of rebel groups and the integration of former combatants into the national army and police.
How has the agreement impacted Burundi’s political landscape?
The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement significantly impacted Burundi’s political landscape by laying the groundwork for a multi-party democracy and reducing ethnic tensions. However, its implementation has faced challenges, including political instability, violence, and disputes over power-sharing, particularly in the years following the 2015 presidential elections.
Is the Arusha Agreement still relevant today?
Yes, the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement remains relevant today as it serves as a reference point for ongoing peace efforts and discussions about governance in Burundi. Despite challenges in its implementation, the agreement’s principles continue to be invoked in calls for political dialogue and reconciliation in the country.
